Salamanca - the mystery of visibility

[Cacadores]

No doubt about it: the French were taken by surprise. But was it because French couldn't see? Or is that just myth?

The more this battle seems to get discussed (elsewhere), the more difficult it is to answer that question. Etherial hills, ghost ridges, positions hidden on a plain abound in the literature. And it all seems to fit together: the French were attacked by the British from behind so - called hidden positions. What other explanation is there for the total rout experienced by the French left wing and the collapse of the French centre? And wasn't Wellington famous for 'hiding behind hills?'

Yet, yet......Wellington attacked: he wasn't on the defensive behind anything as such. And what were the French doing in such a vulnerable position anyway? And why.....er........contrary to the many sketch maps on offer, does the battlefield look so, well,................flat?

What is going on?To answer that question, I reckoned I could try to look at the battle bit by bit, work out where these so-called hidden positions were and separate myth from topography.

The Terrain

Battle map 1) - Before the battle

This whole area is very flat. Salamanca is to the north of here and the fighting was across the bottom half of this picture. The only significant terrain feature is in the top right hand corner.

This map is a little more confusing, because of the different rates of crop planting

But perhaps you can see that there are no particularly impressive topographical variations. Except perhaps the whitish marks on the right hand side, and especially the strange thin East-west orientated hill in the lower portion. The question is if these were significant.

I don't know the full answer, but I'd like to find out The battle of Salamanca was a very unusual battle. This thread is meant to deal with a particular aspect of that battle: the terrain, and the reasons why the action was where it was: one of the most decisive battles of Wellington's career….

The first thing to sort out is when and where the battle began.


Manouevres: the strategy

We know that:
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Wellington is laying plans for the campaign that would see the capture of Madrid by the Summer of 1812.. His aim: to sever links between MARMONT and SOULT in the south But Marmont, under pressure from Napoleon, makes a move forward..........
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It's here we find out that the battle perhaps didn't come about in a normal way:
The first thing that makes this battle different, is that this was not a set-piece battle. The French and the British did not calmly deploy facing one another. In fact, for the last few days, they'd been marching side by side, often within cannon range.
To find out why, it might be worth looking at why the commanders were there:
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Marmont's aim was to move South with 40,000 men to relieve the Salamanca forts. Feeling pressure from Napoleon, he moves forward against Wellington. For days the two armies march close to one another: Marmont trying to ourflank Wellington, threaten his communications and force him to withdraw from Salamanca. Wellington is determined to stay in the game as long as possible, but considering the possibility that he might have to withdraw if Marmont gains reinforcements.

So......they were marching side by side:

Salamanca is at the top left.
Clearly, during much of this episode, the armies were in sight of one another and neither was static or hidden as such.


Next is: when did the battle begin?

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The Vanguards face off.

This is one of the most confusing moments.

By the evening of the 21st, the French vanguard had occupied the village of Calvarasa de Arriba. Facing them, were the Light Division.

The land here is the very land you can see in the top right of the Google earth photos. In fact the area is gently rolling land. There is a small chapel on one small rockey outcrop

Perhaps you can see from this photo, that it isn't that high, but that it could disrupt line of sight.


So....it was here that the Light Division faced off the French vanguard. And indeed, the rising ground hid what Wellington was doing with his other forces. Actually he was choosing not to continue the southern progression, but to use the light division as a hinge, and to spread his forces to the south so as to keep Salamanca, and his siege of the French fortresses there covered. It was a delicate choice: he could ony keep Salamanca covered for so long: soon, if Marmont moved west, he would have to give it up and move west himself to cover his communications with Portugal.

Battle Map 1) - The Vanguards Face Off


Here's another look at the rolling ground between the two forces:



Wellington's other forces move south too, behind the position occupied by the Light Division: the Light Division acting as a hinge. Wellington intends therefore, to now control a line extending from the Light Division west, possibly through the Los Arapiles village.

As both armies now start to move west, a front line develops:
Battle Map 2) Front line


But what is significant, is that the major terrain feature west of the Calvarrasa area, is no longer a significant part of the action.

And there are two small clashes (see the yellow stars). The first is fought by the vanguards in the no man's land to the east of Calvarrasa. The second is as the following French forces slip around the lower side of the Light Division position, and make for the Greater Arapile, in competition with the 6th Cacadores. The Cacadores are repulsed and the French take possesion of the highest point in the area: the Greater Arapile. A point from which he should be able to see the British. However, it is important to note, that the battle proper hasn't even begun yet: it's just about to.
Battle Map 3) - French marchers turn west


The battle has moved to the south.......a completely new area.

So what is this new area like, and what could the French really see?
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[Cacadores]

Marmont's view - The Greater Arapile and the topography in the South.

Marmont, the French commander, takes up position on the Greater Arapile

Gradually, his forces start moving west as he tries to cut Wellington off from his communications. But Packenham, on the left of the map, is already there. And it's here, the myths begin.
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During the day Wellington moved his hidden divisions into positions facing to the south behind the Los Arapiles village. And from his position atop the highest point in the area, Marmont can see the British take up positions close to Los Arapiles village. But the probability is, that Marmont can't necessarily make out some of the more distant troops, like Packenham at Aldeatejada.

The battle is about to begin, and what Marmont can or cannot see becomes an important explanation for the final result. But even from the aerial photo, it's not clear that there was anything to protect Wellington, or to hide most of his troops. Indeed Marmont, aware that Wellington is re-aligning his troops south, orders Maucune to take Los Arapiles village.
Battle Map 4) - Skirmishing Begins, Marching Continues


Michael Glover, in his excellent 'The Peninsular War' describes a ''low ridge which connects the two Arapiles''.

[Cacadores]

The First Mistake

The French divisions were marching along the British and Portuguese front, dangerously strung out and exposing their flanks. Wellington galloped to his extreme right, where Pakenham's Third Division was arriving from Salamanca with D'Urban's Portuguese Cavalry. He ordered an immediate attack on the head of the French column. Wellington then crossed the hills to his centre and directed the Fifth and Fourth Divisions to attack the French column, supported by the Sixth and Seventh Divisions and two Portuguese infantry brigades.

How could Marmont, an experienced commander, allow such a catastrophy to happen?

Later historians, especially the French, have claimed that Marmont was unsighted. Was he?

Was Marmont unsighted when the battle began?

Much is made of Wellington's commanding position on the Lessor Arapile, his southernmost troops are described as being hidden behind hills and himself looking down from a ridge at the French. Indeed this map appears to show rolling country

But on closer inspection, the vertical gradients have been exaggerated.

This map, in particular appear to show a quite significant ridge behind which Wellington could hide:

However, whan I first saw this, the first thing I noticed was that only one gradient was deliniated: the 850m gradient. What this means, is the land one side of the line is slightly less than 850 meters above sea level, the land the other side of it: slightly more than 85o meters. And no more than that, because if the gradient was any greater, you'd have another gradient line there.

The start of the battle seen from the Greater Arapile

The key to Marmont's position was here, where he was standing on the Greater Arapile. As it's name suggests, it is the highest point in the vicinity and you can see Salamanca from it. You can see the darkish slopes around it, and around that, well, what looks like flat plain:

This is the Greater Arapile: it certainly looks commanding:


This picture shows its south slope. A little hard to walk up - you need the occasional hand to help you, but it's easier at the ends. But have a look at the surrounding land: here we're looking west towards the village and the land seems flat.


This is another photo from the same side, again looking west towards the village. See how flat the land beyond is:


Its significance in the battle can be gauged by looking at this map again. This area was where the battle began. The French-held Greater Arapile is in the bottom right. The British are formed across the top between the village and the Lessor Arapile. Wellington's position is on this lower Lessor Arapile.

Look closely: the area appears mainly flat. To see if it is really, we could walk up Marmont's hill.

Ok, quite a climb. So, a bit puffed, let's look west, directly at where both his own French divisions were marching into the distance on the left, and the British were waiting to near the village. This picture shows the monument atop the hill and the end of the hill itself is in the middle ground. But in the distance you can see the Los Arapiles village. Thomiers would be advancing away to the left and Maucune has just been repulsed from the village (to the left of the monument). You can clearly see beyond the village to the land beyond, and you would surely be able to see a large enemy column advancing, as Packenham's 3rd division was, attended by D'Urban's cavalry. You would also surely be able to see Wellington's troops arrayed behind the village in the bright sunlight.


Wellington's position now extended from the village, east, to the Lessor Arapile. Can Marmont see the troops? Ok, we just need to walk around the monument and take a photo looking north: Here you're lookng directly at the small hill (the Lessor Arapile) where Wellington stood. The only units behind it as such, were the 1st division, and the Light Divison. Neither of these units were involved in the initial attacks, and Marmont knew of their existance anyway because of the fighting erlier in the day, when he was to the right of this picture around Calvarrasa.

At this point, Anson's brigade is in front or around that hill. Pack's brigade is alongside on the plain and to the left of that hill. Two brigades of the 4th Division is to the left of them, the 6th and 7th divisions immdidiately behind them in turn. Can you see anywhere to hide?

Have a look at the same area again:

Marmont could see it all.

[uriahheep2000]

marmont was trying to get round wellis flank extended his line to much and then was attacked thats it nothing else to it
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a war gamer who actually war games a holder of 4 world record for war gaming

[richard jackson]

I think its really mostly to do with the lag in communication that existed Cacs.
Certainly the French command would probably have been aware of Wellingtons sudden and decisive thrust and would have seen the fact that there was a gap between the different bits of the French army.
Marmont saw it and probably tried to do something about it but just couldnt get an ADC there in time to change the orders and thus to stop the Brits from pressing home their attack.
I think it may have been quite hard for the local commander to have worked out what was going on ( possibly because of the very flat terrain you point out) and therefore he would presumably have continued following the orders to continue his march across country-orders he had probably been following repeatedly for the past few days,back and forth.
I personally doubt that Marmont was unsighted but that he was unable to react quickly enough when he realised that Wellington had ordered an assault as opposed to another general drift to a position closer to the French which seems to have happened several times during the previous few days.
Basically the French blinked and Wellington landed a sucker punch form within plain sight in my view.
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Every mans death diminishes me for I am a member of humanity.
Therefore send not to ask for whom the bell tolls
It tolls for thee

[uriahheep2000]

its the exact move welli have been waiting for and he pounced
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a war gamer who actually war games a holder of 4 world record for war gaming

[Cacadores]

Thanks you two. I hope you like the photos. The basic motivation for taking them was just surprise: what I was looking at was just so far removed from what I'd been led to believe by at least 3 books I'd read.
In fact (to the annoyance of my lovely sandwich maker) I couldn't at first believe I was in the right place: I had to take compass bearings on the village to convince myself I was looking at the battlefield.

Anyway......... what you're looking at here is the battlefield where the Cacadores tried to take the Greater Arapile and where Maucune tried to take the village. It's also the location of the second and the third of Wellington's main attacks (see below).


I haven't dealt with the location of Wellington's first main attack on the head of Thomiere's brigade - I'm coming to that.

But by then, it was already too late: Marmont made his decisions here, with what he could see from here. And on a bright sunny day, I'd humbly suggest he could just about see everything he needed to.

So:

Long journey, same situation every day for the last four days or so. Just after lunch, very hot weather, has a relatively private place above the Arapile................

I mean, if you're going to have a nap, this would be the time, wouldn't it?

[uriahheep2000]

keep it all coming
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a war gamer who actually war games a holder of 4 world record for war gaming

[Cacadores]

Right ho, Uri.

So: Ok, Thomieres is out in front, scampering west ahead to get around the Allied flank - as the Frenchies had been trying to do for the past four days.

Thomieres. What was that man doing?

Hadn't he been sent by him?

Assuming he, Marmont, wasn't asleep.

Later haigiography suggests otherwise: that Thomiere had disobayed Marmont's order to help Maucune at the villlage. We're asked to believe that he was, in fact, a loose cannon, heading off into death or glory to try to outflank Wellington and that he was responsible for the ensuing debacle.

But then how do we account for the fact that Thomieres passed Marmont's own position, and apears never to have headed for the village? How do we explain that the rest of the army seems to have followed the same route - much of it marching right past Marmont's hill?

Nope. Marmont must have ordered it. Or else not ordered it; in other words his army was just marching on under Marmont's original orders and according to his plan.

One of the critisisms of Marmont was that he swung between energetic assertiveness and dithering indecisiveness. On St Helena, Napoleon called him:

[uriahheep2000]

what marmount saw was welli baggage not his line thats why he over streched himself
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a war gamer who actually war games a holder of 4 world record for war gaming

[Cacadores]

Well, I'm coming to that..........

[Cacadores]

Baggage for Uri

Yes. Marmont records that he had finished his meal (and perhaps a little sleepy) said he saw dust clouds moving west from Salamanca. And he apparently seems to have thought that was Wellington sending some troops away.

The significance of that, is that would mean that the British troops to Marmont's immediate front were just a holding force. If he took his chances now, he might catch a small part of Wellington's army and decimate it. But this was when? This was apparently what prompted him to send Maucune in earlier to try to take Los Arapiles village: to 'hold' the British to his front. Exactly what we touched upon above: Marmont plans to hold Wellington's nearby troops, while the rest of his forces try to turn the allied flank.

The fact that Maucune was not re-enforced, despite at first getting some sucess in the outer houses in Arapiles village and then being repulsed, might suggest a change of plan happened during the village attack. Thomiere's 7th division by-passes him, and is followed by a slightly weakened Maucune with Brennier and Clausel following up.

Either way, this change of tack is a weak move. And, with Thomieres a little too far out in front, Wellington......er............pounces? Or, more accurately, sets in train a series of moves that is going to take over an hour to come to fruition! So, how come Thomieres gets trashed?

Was Thomieres unsighted?

[Cacadores]

Could the French see Packenham?

Thomieres had his division at the head of a straggling French army moving west. Wellington gallops over to Packenham near Aldeatejada and orders him to ''drive those fellows to the Devil'.

Packenham turns to his brother-in-law and says '''I will, if you'll give me your hand.''

Afterwards, Wellington turns to his staff, and says ''Did you ever see a man, who understands so clearly what he has to do?

And yet again the myths devlop.

Packenham's presentation sword

Far from being an instant move - it actually took Packenham about an hour to reach Thomieres' division. So how come Thomieres was taken by surprise?

What Marmont could see:

First of all, this map below deliniates the slight gradients in the plain and shows more clearly the early scamble for the Greater Arapile. It also shows how riskily Marmont had dispirsed his men over a wide area despite the presence of the Allied troops. It also shows the ground Packenham is going to have to cover from Aldea Tejada (on the far left hand side) to reach Thomieres west of Los Arapiles. More importanly, as Packenham's column is limited to walking pace while Marmonts ADCs can gallop, you can perhaps appreciate how much time Marmont has.

Now if you can locate the Greater Arapile (bottom, centre) where Marmont is standing, imagine his line of sight west across Cole's position behind the village of Arapiles all the way to Aldea Tejada (on the far left hand side) where Packenham waited for orders. What is apparent, is that the Greater Arapile is higher than everything on that line of sight. This bears up the photograph with the monument you saw before: you can see into the far distance. Plenty of opportunity to see Packenham and D'Urban's cavalry as they spend an hour moving towards Thomieres. Plenty of time for a fast mount from Marmont to warn Thomieres too.

This map, perhaps more realistically, indicates the flat nature of the battlefield and the lack of obstacle beween Marmont on the Greater Arapile and Thomiere's final position.

If Marmont didn't see anything of Packenhams' devastating march for long, nor D'Urban's cavalry, this can be accounted for only by........well, that he didn't look or that he misinterpreted what he saw. Even if he was under artillery fire in the latter stages, that's quite an oversight. The other possibility is that he could see Packenham , but reckoned he could take him. There is evidence, however that he did notice Packenham until later; he send word to hasten support for Thomieres then, but it was far too late. Marmont simply wasn't on the ball

Next: was Thomieres unsighted?

[uriahheep2000]

i think that answer comes in 2 points one is his orders so he wont be expecting it

secondly my self and peeler have tried this it dosent take a huge geat hill to consel yourself

wev done this up on the moors its amazing how low a little hillock can be for you to hide behind and not be seen

also as Richard has said communications are slow so even if he did see them it wouldn't make much difference because as in our good old Yorkshire words say

there's nowt he could have done anyway it was to late

also it dosent matter how much conjector there is the fact is it happened and that's all there is to it

we can sit down and anerlize this till kingdom come that facts are marmount was out positioned and out thought by welli and suffered for it

i know your not having a go or me but a few points been and this is where i love these historians of now a days we dont really have much clue how things worked back then they like to think they do but they damn well dont

one point been Thomieries may have knowen what was goign on

but think on this he just might have knowen that if he did not follow orders his head was coming off we dont know that but it was happening plenty on the french side up to the nap wars and beyond

if you crossed the nap man must of them only did it once

that may have been in the back of his mind
he just might have been saying [full deck] this for a game of soldiers i go against my orders im in [Brad Pitt], im in [Brad Pitt] anyway il stay here and maybe il just survey wev no idea
but its a possibility

personally i doubt it i just think it was a brillient move by welli and he kicked [gordon brown] full stop

the hadent a clue what was coming and they suffered for it
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a war gamer who actually war games a holder of 4 world record for war gaming

[Cacadores]

It doesn't take a huge hill to conceal onesself, yes. Except there aren't any in the way.

Marmont's choice of location

Bear in mind that D'Urban had his cavalry and was marching with Packenham for more than an hour over any bumps there are...There really would have had to have been hills there to conceal them for that long. And for at least half that time, Marmont, who could easily look down on Peckenham's march, certainly did have time to warn Thomieres.

Either Marmont wasn't looking at Packenham. Or he forgot to look at Thomieres.

And........with fighting already developing at the Arapiles village and the head division of his army heading off towards Miranda de Azan, we have to wonder why Marmont was still above the Greater Arapile in the first place. He could have got himself nearer the fighting.

But isn't that kind of commander's position, not involved in the fighting, but looking down upon it from a slight distance: like Bonaparte's Santon at Austerlitz, or Rossomme at Waterloo.......so very.......well, Napoleonic?